Uruk (Warka)
Ur (Tell al-Muqayyar)
Nippur (Afak)
Lagash (Tell al-Hiba)
Each city was ruled over by a priestly governor or by a king who was intimately tied to the city's religious rites.
These city-states were independent entities, that often waged war against each other, but there were also wars against a unity.
The cities of Sumer were the first civilization to practice intensive, year-round agriculture.
The major crops were barley, wheat, dates and vegetables. They also raised cattle, donkeys, sheep and goats. Textiles were made from wool from the sheep.
The Sumerians also performed trade with foreign countries, they even trade with other peoples out in the Persian Gulf, from where they among other things bought home ivory and other luxury items.
The Sumerians seems to have begun to use writing by around 3500 BC, which allows us to know more about them. Cuneiform writing emerged in the Sumerian civilization . 3200 BC the Sumerians developed one of the earliest known writing systems in the form of clay tablets. Many of these cuneiform tablets contain records, accounts, sacred scripts, and letters.
Sargon after becoming king of kish
soon attacked Uruk, which was ruled by Lugal-Zage-Si of Umma. He captured Uruk and dismantled its famous walls. The defenders seem to have fled the city, joining an army led by fifty ensi sénsi was considered a representative of the city state's from the provinces. This Sumerian force fought two pitched battles against the Akkadians, as a result of which the remaining forces of Lugal-Zage-Si were routed. Lugal-Zage-Si himself was captured and brought to Nippur; Sargon inscribed on the pedestal of a statue (preserved in a later tablet) that he brought Lugal-Zage-Si "in a dog collar to the gate of Enlil. Sargon pursued his enemies to Ur before moving eastwards to Lagash, to the Persian Gulf, and thence to Umma. He made a symbolic gesture of washing his weapons in the "lower sea" (Persian Gulf) to show that he had conquered Sumer in its entirety. Sargon reigned from 2270 to 2215 BC, he ruled from a new capital, Akkad (Agade).
To help limit the chance of revolt in Sumer he appointed a court of 5,400 men to "share his table" (i.e., to administer his empire). These 5,400 men may have constituted Sargon's army. The governors chosen by Sargon to administer the main city-states of Sumer were Akkadians, not Sumerians.The Semitic Akkadian language became the lingua franca, the official language of inscriptions in all Mesopotamia
around 2215 BC BC : Sargon dies, and is succeeded by his son
Dynasty of Akkad (Agade)
Ruler Proposed reign Notes
Sargon 2270 BC – 2215 BC
Rimush 2214 BC – 2206 BC Son of Sargon
Man-ishtishu 2205 BC – 2191 BC Son of Sargon
Naram-sin 2190 BC – 2154 BC Grandson of Sargon
Shar-kali-sharri 2153 BC – 2129 BC Son of Naram-sin
Collapse of the Akkadian Empire
Within 100 years the Empire of Akkad collapsed almost as fast as it had developed, ushering in a Dark Age. By the end of the reign of Naram-Sin's son, Shar-kali-sharri, the empire collapsed outright from the invasion of barbarians of the Zagros known as "Gutians". It has recently been suggested that the Dark Age at the end of the Akkadian period (and First Intermediary Period of the Ancient Egyptian Old Kingdom) was associated with rapidly increasing aridity, and failing rainfall in the region of the Ancient Near East, caused by a global centennial-scale drought.
Naram-Sin was the last great king in Sargon’s line. With his death revolts and invasions occurred throughout the empire. Elam was lost, and several Sumerian cities revolted. Northern Mesopotamia, Syria and the Anatolian regions fell away from the empire. Finally the Guti, a barbarian hill people from the Zagros mountains, invaded Mesopotamia, put an end to Akkadian power once and for all, and installed themselves as the new rulers of Sumer and Akkad.
Dynasty of Lagash
Gudea: ruled 2144 - 2124 BC
The 3rd dynasty of Ur
Ur-Nammu 2112–2095 B.C.
Shulgi 2095–2047 B.C
Shulgi extends his father's empire to include all of the Assyrian city states. He also re-conquers Susa from Elam, and may be responsible for finishing off rebuilding work at Nippur. The vassal kings of Kisurra are removed entirely. In his twenty-sixth year, Shulgi attempts to forge an alliance between himself and the king of Marhashi, giving his daughter, Nialimmidashu, in marriage to the king.
Amar-Sin 2046–2038 B.C. Son of Shulgi
Shu-Sin 2037–2029 B.C.
Ibbi-Sin 2028–2004 B.C
Ibbi-Sin, son of Shu-Sin, was king of Sumer and Akkad and last king of the Ur III dynasty. During his reign, the Sumerian empire was attacked repeatedly by Amorites. As faith in Ibbi-Sin's leadership failed, Elam declared its independence and began to raid as well.
Ibbi-Sin ordered fortifications built at the important cities of Ur and Nippur, but these efforts were not enough to stop the raids or keep the empire unified. Cities throughout Ibbi-Sin's empire fell away from a king who could not protect them. Ibbi-Sin was, by the end of his kingship, left with only the city of Ur. In 1940 BC, the Elamites, along with "tribesmen from the region of Shimashki in the Zagros Mountains" (Stiebing 79) sacked Ur and took Ibbi-Sin captive; he was taken to the city of Elam where he was imprisoned and, at an unknown date, died.
Hammurabi was the sixth king of Babylon from
1792 BC to 1750 BC.He became the first king of the Babylonian Empire following the abdication of his father, Sin-Muballit.The first few decades of Hammurabi's reign were relatively peaceful. Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and expanding the temples.
Hammurabi, first ruler of the Babylonian empire, holds the claim of restoring order and justice to Mesopotamia. Although Hammurabi did conquer other city-states to expand his empire, he let the rulers of the cities-states live and justly ruled the people with fair laws. Hammurabi wanted his subjects to obey him because they liked him and believed he made just, fair laws and not because they were apprehensive of his formidable military.2 In about 1786 B.C. he wrote 282 laws governing family, criminal punishment, civil law, ethics, business, prices, trade, and every other aspect of ancient life known as “the Code of Hammurabi” which he set up where everyone could read them.
Hammurabi’s death was followed by mass revolts. Hammurabi’s son, Samsu-iluna (1749-1712 BC), fought valiantly to keep his father’s political creation together, but without success.
the Hittites, allied itself with the Kassites, a people of unknown origins. Together, they conquered and destroyed Babylon
The invading Kassite army under Gandash is crushed by Iluma-Ilum of the Sealand Dynasty. However, Gandash does successfully conquer and the Kassite kings reside there.
Hittites were the earliest known inhabitants of what is now Turkey. They began to control the area about 1900 B.C. During the next several hundred years, they conquered parts of Mesopotamia and Syria. By 1500 B.C., the Hittites had become a leading power in the Middle East. Hittite culture and language were Indo-European, but scholars do not know whether the Hittites came from Europe or from central Asia.
Middle East 1500BC
The Hittites now started to expand, and they fought wars with Syria and Assyria. King Mursilis I (1620-1590 B.C) sacked Babylon in 1595 B.C. with help from the Kassites and brought an end to the Old Kingdom of Babylon and Hamurabi's dynasty. This left the Kassites in control of Babylon. King Mursilis I was later killed, and the land he captured was lost.The Hittite Empire was for a while under an influx of the Hurrians (who ruled the Kingdom of Mitanni), but after some time, the Hittites resurged under the leadership of King Suppilulimas (possibly the greatest Hittite king) in 1380 B.C. He built up an empire that for a while, could be matched with Egypt. This period in Hittite history is called the New Kingdom.
King Suppilulimas took Syria and conquered parts of Canaan. His successor, King Muwatallis fought against the famous Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses II in a battle at Kadesh in 1300 B.C. Nobody was victorious, but Ramesses II claimed victory.
The Hittite Empire came to a final decline when they where suddenly attacked by the Sea People in around 1200 B.C.
Nabonidus was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, reigning from 556-539 BC.
He was not a member of the royal family but came to the throne after the legitimate ruler had been murdered.
The king spent ten years in Arabia and left Babylonia administered by his son, Bel-shar-usur
King Nabonidus returned to save his kingdom, but he came too late. Cyrus the Great rules in Persia from 550.The Persians took the city and the kingdom without resistance (they even got support from Gobryas, a local provincial governor) and King Cyrus was greeted as a liberator
It united the Persian areas with the ancient Mesopotamian. Later rulers added Egypt and extended the Empire east to the Indus River. Cyrus founded the Achaemenid Dynasty
Cyrus was followed by Cambyses II (529-522 BC). In 525 BC he conquered Egypt. He died in 522 BC and was replaced by Darius.
Despite its brilliance the Persian Empire declined after 400 BC. For one thing the empire suffered from its sheer size, which made it difficult to control. The empire suffered a series of rebellions. It also suffered from political instability. Another ruler, Artaxerxes III, was assassinated in 338 BC.
Arses of Persia (Artaxerxes IV) 338 – 336 BC son of Artaxerxes III
Darius III of Persia Codomannus 336 – 330 BC great-grandson of Darius II
Alexander the Great 330 – 323 BC
Map of the Persian Empire.
Alexander the Great was born in 356 BC at Pella in Macedonia; he was the son of King Philip of Macedon and Olympia, princess of Epirus. Inheriting a kingdom from his father didn't really please Alexander. What kind of hero gets everything given to him? This wouldn't satisfy Achilles or Hercules and it wouldn't satisfy him.
He immediately began pushing east, against the old enemy Persia -- which his father never succeeded in defeating.
Alexander rapidly moved on to destroy the city of Tyre ... push through Palestine, Syria, Iran, and Afghanistan ... and conquer Egypt (or, depending on your perspective, "liberate" Egypt from the Persians). In bloody battle after bloody battle the Persian Empire and most of the known world fell to the hero Alexander and his Macedonian war machine.
For Alexander, the beginning of the end came when his best friend Hephaestion died of a fever. Hephaestion had been his close companion since they were teenagers. Many scholars say that Alexander and Hephaestion were lovers.
Alexander reluctantly spent the next year in Babylon, without Bucephalas, without Hephaestion, and without the action and glory of battle.
Alexander drank heavily, and in a weakened state he caught a fever. After twelve days of suffering he died in Babylon at the age of 33.
After his death his kingdom was promptly carved up into three pieces by his generals.
He is quoted as saying, "I would rather live a short life of glory than a long one of obscurity."
Seleucus won a reduced portion of the Persian Empire
Antigonus won Greece, or more precisely, Macedonia and the league of Greek cities that were subject to the crown. The Antigonids would rule until the coming of Rome.
The richest prize, Egypt, went to Ptolemy. He founded a dynasty that lasted until the Caesars conquered them.
Antigonus won Greece, or more precisely, Macedonia and the league of Greek cities that were subject to the crown. The Antigonids would rule until the coming of Rome.
The richest prize, Egypt, went to Ptolemy. He founded a dynasty that lasted until the Caesars conquered them.
Antigonus rose to control most of Asia, but his growth of power brought the other Macedonian generals in coalition against him. He was killed in battle and the Macedonian Empire split into four main kingdoms - the one of Seleucus (Asia), Ptolemy (Egypt), Lysimachus (Thrace), and Antipater's son Cassander (Macedonia, including Greece).Antigonus's kingdom was divided up, with most ending up in the hands of Lysimachus and
Seleucus.
Seleucid King
305–281 B.CDuring the next 9 years Seleucus strengthened his eastern borders and crossed the Indus River and invaded India. In the west Antigonus still dominated and in 305 BC assumed the royal title. In Babylonia, Seleucus ruled a tight, efficient government modeled upon the earlier Persian absolutism. He developed his army and the bureaucracy and built new cities during a humane and able kingship.
In 293 Seleucus occupied Cilicia in eastern Asia Minor and began to plot against Demetrius (his former father-in-law), who had seized the Macedonian throne. Seleucus once again allied himself with Ptolemy and Lysimachus. Lysimachus, however, took Macedonia for himself, and Seleucus turned against him. In the spring of 281 Seleucus set out to conquer Asia Minor and to defeat Lysimachus. With him was the eldest son of Ptolemy I, Ptolemy Keraunos, who continually intrigued against his father and against Seleucus. The aged Ptolemy I failed to aid Lysimachus, who fell to a traitor's spear. But when Seleucus advanced on Macedonia that summer, Ptolemy Keraunos stabbed him to death in a vain attempt to claim the Macedonian throne.
Antiochus I Soter (reigned 281-261 B.C.)
Antiochus II Theos (reigned 261-246 B.C).
Seleucus II Callinicus reigned 246 - 226 BC
Seleucus III Ceraunus 225- 223 BC
was assassinated in Asia Minor by members of his army while on campaign against Attalus I of Pergamon.
Antiochus XIII Asiaticus (69–-64 BC)
He was son of king Antiochus X Eusebes and the Ptolemaic princess Cleopatra Selene, who acted as regent for the boy after his father's death sometime between 92 and 85 BC. Some time after Tigranes had conquered Syria (83 BC), she travelled to Rome to have her sons recognized as kings of Egypt, but to no avail. They were there between at least between 75 BC and 73 BC; recognized as "Kings of Syria", and "maintained a royal state" Tigranes had conquered Syria. Selene was eventually captured and killed by Tigranes, but after the latter's defeat by Pompey, the residents of Antioch hailed Antiochus XIII as king, and Lucius Lucullus approved his appointment as client ruler of Syria (69 BC).In 64 BC, Pompey had him deposed and killed by an Arab chieftain Sampsiceramus (Shemashgeram). Antiochus' death is traditionally said to have ended the Seleucid dynasty, but he was survived by Philip II Philoromaeus for a short time.
Antiochos III's death marked the end of the Seleucid Empire as a great power. The kingdom fell once more into dynastic struggles, and the Eastern provinces were gradually lost due to rebellions and Parthian expansion. Much worse was the Roman interference in the Empire, largely influencing the dynastic quarrels and foreign policy, such as in 168 BC when the Romans forced Antiochos IV to withdraw from the only successful Seleucid campaign in Egypt. The wild intrigues which characterized the last decades of the Seleucid Empire were ended by the invasion of the Armenian king Tigranes II in 83 BC. Even if after Tigranes some rulers of Syria claimed to be Seleucid kings, they were no more than Roman vassals.
The Seleucid legacy in Asia was strong, because Hellenism was established in Asia during two centuries of Seleucid rule. The method of dating years in Asia, for example, was called the Seleucid Era, beginning at the return of Seleucos I to Babylon in 311 BC; which was continued to be used as late as the 6th century AD. In fact, the Seleucid legacy lasted throughout Roman, Parthian and Sassanid dominion until the Arabian invasions of the 7th century AD introduced Islam. The official name of the kingdom was Asia, but the Romans called it Syria.
But around 100 BC, Seleucia was getting weaker and weaker. The Parthians started to take over parts of Eastern Seleucia. At the same time, the Romans started to take over parts of Western Seleucia. Eventually the Romans and the Parthians met in the middle. There was a great battle which the Parthians won (by treachery, the Romans said), and the Roman general Crassus was killed.
Parthian troops did not occupy Seleucia but remained in a garrison site called Ctesiphon near Seleucia;it later grew into a city and replaced Seleucia as the capital.
According to Pliny the Elder (Natural History VI. 112) the Parthian empire consisted of 18 kingdoms, 11 of which were called the upper kingdoms (or satrapies), while 7 were called lower kingdoms, meaning that they were located on the plains of Mesopotamia. The center of the lower kingdoms was ancient Babylonia, called Beth Aramaye in Aramaic, and it was governed directly by the Parthian ruler. In the south was Characene, while to the northeast of Ctesiphon, which had supplanted Seleucia as the Parthian capital, was Garamea, with its capital at modern Kirkuk. Adiabene had Arbela as its capital, and farther north was a province called Beth Nuhadra in Aramaic, which seems to have been governed by a general who was directly responsible to the Parthian king, because this province bore the brunt of Roman invasions.
Parthian rule was not firm over all Mesopotamia; thus, for example, during the reign of
(AD 12-38) the Jewish brigands Asinaeus and Anilaeus set up a free state north of Ctesiphon that lasted 15 years before it was overcome by the Parthians. With the end of cuneiform records and with the attention of classical sources turned to the wars between the Romans and the Parthians, information about internal affairs in Mesopotamia becomes almost nonexistent.
Changes took place in the demography of Mesopotamia under the Parthians, and perhaps the most striking development among the population was the increase of Arab infiltration from the desert, which resulted in Arab dynasties in the oasis settlements of Palmyra and Hatra. Similarly, an influx of Armenian settlers in the north changed the composition of the local population. After the fall of the Temple of Jerusalem to the Romans in 70, many Jews fled to Mesopotamia, where they joined their coreligionists; Nehardea, north of Ctesiphon, became a center of Jewish population. Naturally also many migrants from the east came to Mesopotamia in the wake of the Parthian occupation. With many merchants from east and west passing through or remaining in Mesopotamia, the population became more diverse than it had previously been
During the Parthian occupation the ancient religion and cults of Mesopotamia came to an end and were replaced by mixed Hellenic and Oriental mystery religions and Iranian cults.
The largest lacuna is in literature from the Parthian period. The largely oral literature of the Parthians, famous for their minstrels and poetry, does not seem to have found many echoes in Mesopotamia, where the settled society contrasted with the heroic, chivalric, and feudal society of the Iranian nomads that continued to dominate Parthian mores even after they had settled in Mesopotamia. Nonetheless, the end of the Parthian period saw the beginning of Syriac literature, which is Christian Aramaic, and some of early Syriac literature, such as the "Song of the Pearl," contains Parthian elements. In the realm of language, rather than literature, the writing of Aramaic changes to Parthian in the 2nd century AD, as can be seen from a bilingual (Greek and Parthian) inscription on a bronze statue from Seleucia dated AD 150-151. It tells how Vologeses III defeated the king of Mesene and took over the entire country. After this period one no longer speaks of Aramaic, but of Parthian and Syriac written in a new cursive alphabet.
The end of the Parthian Empire (AD 162-226)The 40 years' peace was succeeded by almost uninterrupted hostilities with Rome, with varied success, Iran remaining more vulnerable because of the exposed position of its capital.
For nearly half a millennium Parthia pursued its great ambition to recover the western provinces of the Achaemenids. An empire of the middle, between Rome on the west and the Kushans on the east, undermined by internal weaknesses, Parthia finally succumbed, leaving its great dreams to its successors, the Sasanids.
The first signs of the new Iranian renaissance appeared under Valakhs I.Ruled the Parthian Empire from about 51 to 78 AD. With the accession of Vologases II CE 148-92 the Iranian retribution began to be exacted from the Romans. The wars continued for decades; cities changed hands and territories were conquered and lost by both parties. In the end the Romans were defeated.
. Sassanid Empire, AD 224-651
- Ardashir I, 224 to 241
- Shapur I, 241-272
- Hormizd I, 272-273
- Bahram I, 273-27
Early Islamic Kingdoms (641-1230 AD)
Umayyad dynasty, 661-750Abbasid dynasty, 750-867
more dynasty see wikipedia
Buyid Empire, 932-1056
